Grammar

Beyond vocabulary and conjugation, these are the structures that make the difference between textbook French and French that actually flows.

Direct object pronouns: le, la, les

To avoid repeating a noun you've already mentioned, replace it with "le", "la", or "les" — placed right before the verb, never after like in English.

"Tu as vu le film ? — Oui, je l'ai vu hier." — Did you see the movie? Yes, I saw it yesterday (not "I saw it" with "it" after the verb).

Indirect object pronouns: lui, leur

When a verb takes "à quelqu'un" (to speak to, to write to, to call...), replace the person with "lui" (singular) or "leur" (plural) — no gender distinction, unlike "le/la".

"J'écris à mes parents" → "Je leur écris." "Je téléphone à Marie" → "Je lui téléphone." — I write to them / I call her.

"Y" and "en": two pronouns that replace places or things

"Y" replaces "à + place" or "à + thing"; "en" replaces "de + thing" or a quantity. Two tiny words, but impossible to miss once you start listening for them.

"Tu vas à Paris ?" — "Oui, j'y vais." (Are you going to Paris? Yes, I'm going there.) "Tu as des questions ?" — "Oui, j'en ai une." (Do you have questions? Yes, I have one.)

Compound negation: ne...jamais, ne...plus, ne...rien, ne...personne

French negation wraps the verb in two parts — but in casual speech, the "ne" is often dropped entirely, which surprises learners who only ever learned it in writing.

In writing: "Je ne fume plus." In casual speech: "Je fume plus." — I don't smoke anymore (the negative meaning stays, carried by "plus" alone).

"à", "en", "au" before a country or city

The preposition changes depending on the country's gender and whether it's a city or a country: "à" for a city, "en" for a feminine country, "au" for a masculine country, "aux" for a plural country.

"à Tokyo", "en France" (feminine), "au Japon" (masculine), "aux États-Unis" (plural).

Comparatives and superlatives

"Plus... que", "moins... que", "aussi... que" to compare; "le/la/les plus..." for the superlative — with one frequent exception: "bon" (good) becomes "meilleur" (better), never "plus bon".

"Ce café est meilleur que l'autre" (never "plus bon") — this coffee is better than the other one; "c'est le plus grand café de la ville" — it's the biggest café in town.

The partitive article: du, de la, des

For an unspecified amount ("some of"), French uses "du", "de la", or "des" rather than the definite article — a concept that doesn't map neatly onto many other languages.

"Je mange du pain" (some bread, an unspecified amount) vs. "Je mange le pain" (this specific bread, all of it).

Adjective placement: before or after the noun

Most adjectives go after the noun, but a short list of very common ones (beauty, age, goodness, size — beau, jeune/vieux, bon/mauvais, grand/petit...) go before it instead.

"une voiture rouge" (after, the general case) vs. "une belle voiture" (before, a common adjective) — a red car vs. a beautiful car.